Sleepy Brains Drawn to Junk Food

SUNDAY, June 10, 2012 (Health.com) — As any college student or shift worker will tell you, staying up all night or even just skimping on sleep can lead a person to seek out satisfying, calorie-packed foods.
An emerging body of research suggests that sleep-related hunger and food cravings, which may contribute to weight gain, are fuelled in part by certain gut hormones involved in appetite. But our brain, and not just our belly, may play a role as well.
According to two small studies presented today at a meeting of sleep researchers in Boston, sleep deprivation appears to increase activity in areas of the brain that seek out pleasure—including that provided by junk food. To make matters worse, sleepiness also may dampen activity in other brain regions that usually serve as a brake on this type of craving.
In one of the studies, researchers at Columbia University used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which tracks blood flow in the brain, to compare brain activity in 25 volunteers following a normal night’s sleep (about eight hours) and a night in which they were limited to just four hours.


In each case, the researchers performed the scans while showing the volunteers images of unhealthy foods interspersed with healthy foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and oatmeal. Brain networks associated with craving and reward were more active when the participants were sleep-deprived than when they were well-rested—especially when the participants viewed the images of unhealthy foods.
“The pleasure-seeking parts of the brain were stimulated after an individual was sleep-deprived,” says lead researcher Marie-Pierre St-Onge, Ph.D., a research associate at the university’s New York Obesity Research Center. “People went for foods like pepperoni pizza, cheeseburgers, and cake.”
St-Onge and other researchers working in this field suspect that tired people gravitate to high-calorie foods because their bodies and brains are seeking an extra energy boost to help them get through the day. “We hypothesize that the restricted-sleep brain reacts to food stimuli as though it [were] food deprived,” St-Onge says.
Previous studies have established a link between sleep deprivation and obesity, although it remains unclear how sleep might affect weight gain (or vice versa). In an effort to unravel the relationship, researchers have begun exploring how insufficient sleep influences hormones and appetite. Several recent studies—including one led by St-Onge—have found that people who are sleep deprived tend to snack more and consume more calories.
Hunger and cravings may not be the only factors, however. A second study presented today suggests that so-called higher-order brain functions—those that help up us weigh pros and cons and make complex choices, including about what we eat—may be compromised by a lack of sleep.

Immune-System Test May Predict Early Death

MONDAY, June 4, 2012 (Health.com) — A blood test that measures a marker of immune-system activity may help doctors identify people who are at risk of dying at an early age, a new study suggests.
Researchers at the Mayo Clinic measured levels of the immune-system molecules known as free light chains in 15,859 Minnesotans age 50 and up, and found that people whose levels were in the top 10% were four times more likely than the other study participants to die over the next 13 years.
Doctors commonly test for free light chains to diagnose and manage blood disorders and blood-related cancers, such as multiple myeloma or lymphoma. This study, which was published this week in the journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings, is the first to link high levels of free light chains with earlier death in a group of people without any known blood disorders.
Normally, light chains bind with so-called heavy chains to form infection-fighting antibodies. The presence of unattached “free” light chains has long been recognized as a signal that the immune system has gone awry, either due to inflammation, infection, or both, says lead author Vincent Rajkumar, M.D., a hematologist at the Mayo Clinic, in Rochester, Minn.


Elevated free light chain levels have been observed in people with kidney dysfunction, and are also seen in autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. Even after the researchers took into account the kidney function, age, and gender of the participants, however, those with the highest free light chain levels were still twice as likely as their peers to die during the study.
Free light chain levels appeared to be equally effective at predicting death from many different causes, including cancer, heart disease, lung disease, and diabetes.
It’s not clear from the findings why, exactly, free light chains are linked to a higher risk of early death. High levels could be a marker of inflammation, which is associated with heart disease and numerous other health problems. But it’s also possible they’re a sign of normal, age-related deterioration of the immune system, the study notes.
And it’s still unclear how this test might be useful in generally healthy people. For now, Rajkumar and his colleagues urge doctors not to use the test as a screening instrument, as that will simply serve to alarm patients.
On the other hand, Rajkumar says, if doctors order the test for a specific reason and it comes back high, they may want to use that information to test for additional problems that could then be treated. “It might be telling you something you might be missing,” he says.
Neil Blumberg, M.D., a professor of pathology and laboratory medicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center, in Rochester, N.Y., says he’s skeptical that free light chain tests are more powerful than existing tests that measure immune-system function or markers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein.
The study authors didn’t compare the free light chain test with these other tests, Blumberg points out, and it “may not measure anything that we don’t get with white cell count or C-reactive protein or 15 other tests which are cheaper and easier to do.”
Besides, Blumberg says, if a person’s test results were to come back sky-high, the advice for preventing an early death would likely be what patients hear from their doctors already. “We really don’t need any more tests to tell us we ought to lose weight, exercise, [and] eat a less pro-inflammatory diet,” he says.

5 Surprising Things You Don’t Have to Buy Organic

Avocados

By Sara Reistad-Long
You’re pretty safe with fruits and vegetables like avocados, which have a thick skin that you don’t eat. Just remember to wash the peel before cutting into them to get rid of any residue.

Eggs

Chickens as a rule are not given growth hormones. And research has shown that factory eggs don’t have higher quantities of contaminants than organic eggs.

Frozen food in plastic bags

The risk of leached chemicals is heightened by heat, and frozen produce is, well, as cold as ice. As long as you’re not boiling in the bag, the chance of ingesting harmful chemicals from these is low.

Spices

"Even when you’re using spices liberally, you’re consuming such small amounts of each that the risk is minimal," says Sonya Lunder, senior analyst at the EWG

Clothing

While there’s no question that organic cotton is excellent for the environment, the benefits it has on your personal health are unclear—it’s unlikely that pesticides remain in clothing in quantities large enough to seep into our bodies. The one possible exception is clothing treated with flame retardants (the label will tell you if that’s the case).

Diet Doctors Gone Wrong

Dan Saelinger

When we seek out an MD, we believe we're in the care of someone who has received extensive training and is ethically bound to "do no harm." But what we may not realize is that the financial realities of modern medicine are leading some physicians to tout untested, unnecessary, or potentially dangerous cures. In this three-part series, Health examines the specialties most vulnerable to these unscrupulous doctors.
Mary Lynn Adams just wanted to lose some weight while her husband was deployed in Afghanistan. "I wanted to look good by the time he got back," says Adams, a 28-year-old homemaker in Tennessee. She found a diet doctor last December after reading a flyer that came in the mail. The doctor checked her height (5 feet 7 inches), weight (238 pounds), and blood pressure, and did some basic blood work including testing her cholesterol levels. Although Adams had high blood pressure (145/95), the doctor recommended that she start the prescription appetite suppressant phentermine—a drug not recommended for patients with high blood pressure because, as a stimulant, it may increase blood pressure even more. "He explained to me that the risks of my being overweight were worse than the risks of having high blood pressure," Adams says. The drug definitely curbed her appetite—"I felt sick just looking at food," she says—but she also noticed her heart was racing. A month later, her blood pressure was up to 150/100. Her doctor cut her dose in half, but Adams decided to stop taking the drug. She's now working with a personal trainer, who she says is benefiting her more than the medicine.
Many women assume that any weight-loss treatment prescribed by a doctor must be safe—certainly safer than sketchy supplements or weird crash diets. But the truth is that some doctors are pushing the limits of what's medically acceptable, prescribing drugs that may put their patients' safety at risk or offering treatments that aren't proven to work. "The field is ripe for abuse because there are a lot of desperate people out there trying to lose weight and a few doctors who just want to make some fast money," says Rhonda Hamilton, MD, MPH, an instructor at Harvard Medical School and medical coordinator of Bariatric Quality at Winchester Hospital in Winchester, Massachusetts.

Home >> Food & Recipes >> Recipes >> Cider-Roasted Chicken

Cider-Roasted Chicken

Becky Luigart-Stayner; Jan Gautro

Ingredients

• 3 quarts water
• 1 quart apple cider
• 1/4 cupkosher salt
• 1 tablespoonblack peppercorns
• 1 bay leaf
• 1 (6-pound) roasting chicken
• 2 cupsapple cider
• 1 large onion, peeled and halved
• 4 flat-leaf parsley sprigs
• 4 garlic cloves, peeled

Preparation

Combine the first 5 ingredients in a saucepan; bring to a boil, stirring until salt dissolves. Remove from heat; cool completely. Remove and discard giblets and neck from chicken. Rinse chicken with cold water; pat dry. Trim excess fat. Pour brine into a 2-gallon zip-top plastic bag. Add chicken; seal. Refrigerate 8 hours or overnight, turning the bag occasionally.
Preheat oven to 400°.
Bring 2 cups cider to a boil in a small saucepan over medium-high heat. Cook until cider has thickened and reduced to 1/4 cup (about 15 minutes). Set aside.
Remove chicken from bag; discard brine. Pat chicken dry with paper towels. Place the onion halves, parsley, and garlic into cavity. Lift wing tips up and over back; tuck under chicken. Tie legs. Place chicken on rack of a broiler pan. Bake at 400° for 1 hour and 30 minutes or until thermometer registers 175°. Remove from oven (do not turn oven off). Carefully remove and discard skin. Baste chicken with half of reduced cider; return to 400° oven for 10 minutes. Remove from oven; baste with remaining cider reduction. Transfer chicken to a platter.
Place a zip-top plastic bag inside a 2-cup glass measure. Pour drippings into bag; let stand 10 minutes (fat will rise to the top). Seal bag; carefully snip off 1 bottom corner of bag. Drain drippings into a small bowl, stopping before fat layer reaches opening; discard fat. Serve jus over chicken.

9 Summer Drinks From Bethenny Frankel

Cool down, guilt-free

By Alyssa Sparacino
Nothing says summer more than dining alfresco. And who can really relax on the porch, mingle at a barbecue, or lounge poolside without a little something to sip on? These nine drinks from Skinnygirl Bethenny Frankel—some with alcohol and some without—will leave your thirst quenched and your weight in check. Cheers to that!

Sangria

Bethenny’s version of the classic wine-based cocktail uses soda, rather than sugary syrups or liqueurs. The fizz adds a new element to the fruity drink without adding major calories.

American Virgin

Sans alcohol, this citrusy drink clocks in at a mere 34 calories per glass! It’s soda, juice, and lemonade combined to create one ridiculously refreshing cooler that’s perfect for your next family picnic.

Berry-Good Smoothie

Your post-workout snack just got tastier. Choose your favorite berries: Strawberries contain potassium, which can lower blood pressure; blueberries add fiber and vitamin C to your diet; and raspberries are loaded with antioxidants.

Blend with a few more add-ins and ice and you’ll be berry, berry satisfied.

Skinnygirl Margarita

The drink that started it all for Bethenny is just as satisfying as the tried-and-truly-fattening original. Sit back and relax, knowing your diet is still on track with this slimmed-down version of a summer favorite.

Tequila Berry Blast

You might call this a cousin of the famous Skinnygirl Margarita. Switch things up with cranberry instead of lime juice and you’ll have the perfect cocktail for a backyard dinner party.

Mint Mojito

Thanks to its expert use of muddled mint, the mojito could quite possibly be the most refreshing summer drink ever. Unfortunately, restaurant versions could cost you a few hundred calories. Bethenny’s, at just 150, really hits the spot!

Piña Colada

Bethenny knows that where there’s a tropical drink, the beach (and bathing suits) can’t be far. That’s why her version of a frosty piña colada treat is made with coconut milk, not high-calorie cream of coconut.

Green Tea Lemonade

The lightest drink on Bethenny’s list, this combination is as healthy for you as it is delicious.

Black-Eyed Susan

Indulge in this mixture of rum, juice, and soda, and you might find yourself transported to a breezy ocean somewhere—or at least make it easier to pretend.

 

Nuclear medicine

Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty involving the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
In nuclear medicine procedures, radionuclides are combined with other elements to form chemical compounds, or else combined with existing pharmaceutical compounds, to form radiopharmaceuticals. These radiopharmaceuticals, once administered to the patient, can localize to specific organs or cellular receptors. This property of radiopharmaceuticals allows nuclear medicine the ability to image the extent of a disease-process in the body, based on the cellular function and physiology, rather than relying on physical changes in the tissue anatomy. In some diseases nuclear medicine studies can identify medical problems at an earlier stage than other diagnostic tests. Nuclear medicine, in a sense, is "radiology done inside out" or "endo-radiology" because it records radiation emitting from within the body rather than radiation that is generated by external sources like X-rays.
Treatment of diseased tissue, based on metabolism or uptake or binding of a particular ligand, may also be accomplished, similar to other areas of pharmacology. However, the treatment effects of radiopharmaceuticals rely on the tissue-destructive power of short-range ionizing radiation.
In the future nuclear medicine may provide added impetus to the field known as molecular medicine. As understanding of biological processes in the cells of living organism expands, specific probes can be developed to allow visualization, characterization, and quantification of biologic processes at the cellular and subcellular levels.^[1] Nuclear medicine is a possible specialty for adapting to the new discipline of molecular medicine, because of its emphasis on function and its utilization of imaging agents that are specific for a particular disease process.

Biomedical engineering

For the Russian journal on the subject, see Meditsinskaya Tekhnika.

Ultrasound representation of Urinary bladder (black butterfly-like shape) and hyperplastic prostate. An example of engineering science and medical science working together.

Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail.

Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology. This field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine: It combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical and biological sciences to improve healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.^[1]
Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own discipline, compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, regenerative tissue growth, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic biologicals.

Facial prosthetic

Jump to: navigation, search

A facial prosthetic or facial prosthesis is an artificial device used to change or adapt the outward appearance of a person's face or head.
When used in the theatre, film or television industry, a facial prosthesis alters a person's normal face into something extraordinary. Facial prosthetics can be made from a wide range of materials - including latex, foam latex, silicone, and cold foam. Effects can be as subtle as altering the curve of a cheek or nose, or making someone appear older or younger than they are. A facial prosthesis can also transform an actor into a sci-fi creature, an anthropomorphic animal, mythological beast and more.
To apply facial prosthetics, Pros-Aide, Beta Bond, Medical Adhesive or Liquid Latex is generally used. Pros-Aide is a water-based adhesive that has been the "industry standard" for over 30 years. It's completely waterproof and is formulated for use with sensitive skin. It is easily removed with Pros-Aide Remover. BetaBond is growing in popularity among Hollywood artists who say it's easier to remove. Medical Adhesive has the advantage that it's specifically designed not to cause allergies or skin irritation. Liquid Latex can only be used for a few hours, but can be used to create realistic blends from skin to prosthetics.
After application, cosmetics and/or paint is used to color the prosthetics and skin the desired colors, and achieve a realistic transition from skin to prosthetic. This can be done by the wearer, but is often done by a separate, trained artist.
At the end of its use, some prosthetics can be removed simply by being pulled off. Others need special solvents to help remove the prosthetics, such as Pros-Aide Remover (water based and completely safe)for Pros-Aide, Beta Solv for Beta Bond, and medical adhesive remover for medical adhesive.

Health Sciences Descriptors

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DeCS – Health Sciences Descriptors is a structured and trilingual thesaurus created by BIREME – Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information – in 1987 for indexing scientific journal articles, books, proceedings of congresses, technical reports and other types of materials, as well as for searching and recovering scientific information in LILACS, MEDLINE and other databases. In the VHL, Virtual Health Library, DeCS is the tool that permits the navigation between records and sources of information through controlled concepts and organized in Portuguese, Spanish and English.
It was developed from MeSH – Medical Subject Headings from the NLM – U.S. National Library of Medicine – in order to permit the use of common terminology for searching in three languages, providing a consistent and unique environment for information retrieval regardless of the language. In addition to the original MeSH terms,^[1] four specific areas were developed: Public Health (1987), Homeopathy (1991), Health Surveillance (2005), and Science and Health (2005).
The concepts that compose the DeCS vocabulary are organized in a hierarchical structure permitting searches in broader or more specific terms or all the terms that belong to a single hierarchy.
Its main purpose is to serve as a unique language for indexing and recovery of information among the components of the Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Information System,^[2] coordinated by BIREME and that encompasses 37 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, permitting a uniform dialog between nearly 600 libraries.
DeCS participates in the unified terminology development project, UMLS – Unified Medical Language System of the NLM, with the responsibility of contributing with the terms in Portuguese and Spanish.^[3]

Publicly funded health care

Publicly funded health care is a form of health care financing designed to meet the cost of all or most health care needs from a publicly managed fund. Usually this is under some form of democratic accountability, the right of access to which are set down in rules applying to the whole population contributing to the fund or receiving benefits from it. The fund may be a not-for-profit trust which pays out for health care according to common rules established by the members or by some other democratic form. In some countries the fund is controlled directly by the government or by an agency of the government for the benefit of the entire population. This distinguishes it from other forms of private medical insurance, the rights of access to which are subject to contractual obligations between an insurer (or his sponsor) and an insurance company which seeks to make a profit by managing the flow of funds between funders and providers of health care services.

Healthcare science

"Biomedical Science" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Medical research.

Healthcare science is the applied science dealing with the application of science, technology, engineering or mathematics to the delivery of healthcare. ^[1]
Healthcare scientists are those scientists directly involved in delivering the diagnosis, treatment, care and support of patients in healthcare systems, rather than those individuals whose primary focus is on academic research. ^[2]
Healthcare science stretches across a wide range of scientific specialisms, encompassing biology, genetics, physiology,

Health care

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This article is about the provision of medical care. For other uses, see Health care (disambiguation).

Health care (or healthcare) is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, chiropractic, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers. It refers to the work done in providing primary care, secondary care and tertiary care, as well as in public health.
ahmm, Access to health care varies across countries, groups and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as the health policies in place. Countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies from country to country. In some countries and jurisdictions, health care planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others planning is made more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. In all cases, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a robust financing mechanism; a well-trained and adequately-paid workforce; reliable information on which to base decisions and policies; and well maintained facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies.^[1]
Health care can form a significant part of a country's economy. In 2008, the health care industry consumed an average of 9.0 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) across the most developed OECD countries.^[2] The United States (16.0%), France (11.2%), and Switzerland (10.7%) were the top three spenders.
Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general health and well-being of people around the world. An example of this is the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980—declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions.^[3]

Arthritis breakthrough 'could stop crippling condition before it starts'

A breakthrough in our understanding of how rheumatoid arthritis develops could help scientists spot those at risk and even stop the condition before it starts.
Researchers have found that billions of bugs in our guts play a role in regulating the immune system.
The team from the Mayo Clinic in the U.S said that larger-than-normal populations of specific gut bacteria may trigger the development of autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.

A GP examines a patient's hand for signs of rheumatoid arthritis. There are 400,000 sufferers in the UK

They could also fuel disease progression in people genetically predisposed to the crippling and confounding condition.
'A lot of people suspected that gut flora played a role in rheumatoid arthritis, but no one had been able to prove it because they couldn't say which came first - the bacteria or the genes,' said lead author Dr Veena Taneja.
'Using genomic sequencing technologies, we have been able to show the gut microbiome may be used as a biomarker for predisposition.'

The findings from a study in mice could help scientists predict which people are more likely to develop the painful condition and stop it in its tracks.

Nearly one per cent of the world's population has rheumatoid arthritis, a disease in which the immune system attacks tissues, inflaming joints and sometimes leading to deadly complications such as heart disease.
Although far less common that osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis affects around 400,000 people in the UK.
Other diseases with suspected gut bacterial ties include type I diabetes and multiple sclerosis.

This X-ray shows advanced rheumatoid arthritis of a 57-year-old woman. The condition is three times more common among women

Researchers with the Mayo Illinois Alliance for Technology Based Healthcare say that identifying new biomarkers in intestinal microbial populations and maintaining a balance in gut bacteria could help doctors  stop rheumatoid arthritis before it starts.
Dr Eric Matteson from the Mayo Clinic said: 'This study is an important advance in our understanding of the immune system disturbances associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
'While we do not yet know what the causes of this disease are, this study provides important insights into the immune system and its relationship to bacteria of the gut, and how these factors may affect people with genetic susceptibilities to disease.'
Dr Taneja and her team genetically engineered mice with a human gene that is a strong indicator of predisposition to rheumatoid arthritis. A set of control mice were engineered with a different variant of the gene, known to promote resistance to rheumatoid arthritis. Researchers used these mice to compare their immune responses to different bacteria and the effect on rheumatoid arthritis.
'The gut is the largest immune organ in the body,' said co-author Dr Bryan White, from the University of Illinois.
'Because it's presented with multiple insults daily through the introduction of new bacteria, food sources and foreign antigens, the gut is continually teasing out what's good and bad.'
The gut has several ways to do this, including the mucosal barrier that prevents organisms - even commensal or "good" bacteria - from crossing the lumen of the gut into the human body.
However, when good bacteria breach this barrier, they can trigger autoimmune responses. The body recognizes them as out of place, and in some way this triggers the body to attack itself, he says.
These mice mimic human gender trends in rheumatoid arthritis, in that females were about three times as likely to generate autoimmune responses and contract the disease.
Researchers believe these 'humanised' mice could shed light on why women and other demographic groups are more vulnerable to autoimmune disorders and help guide development of new future therapies.
'The next step for us is to show if bugs in the gut can be manipulated to change the course of disease,' Dr Taneja said.

Stem cells are identified as real culprit behind heart attacks after case of mistaken identity that could revolutionise treatments

The real culprit behind heart attacks and strokes is stem cells, researchers have claimed in a landmark study that could revolutionise treatment.

Until now, scientists thought vascular health problems were triggered by smooth muscle cells.

Now a team from the University of California in Berkeley have found a previously unknown stem cell, which causes the arteries to harden when it multiplies.

Real hope: The cells can multiply and cause arteries to harden, blocking the blood's route to the heart or brain

The groundbreaking work is set to completely change how heart attacks and strokes are treated, dramatically cutting the number of deaths, according the study published today in the journal Nature Communications.

High stress levels can make you fat, researchers claim

Forget that punishing exercise regime or elaborate diet.
The key to losing weight could be as simple as putting your feet up and relaxing.
Scientists have found a gene that makes us crave sweet and fatty foods and pile on the pounds when under stress.
The 'comfort eating gene' has also been linked to type 2 diabetes - the form of the disease that usually occurs in middle-age and is related to obesity.

Weight problem: Stress activates a gene which affects the metabolism and contributes to our cravings for sweet, fatty foods, according to a new study

It is hoped that studying the gene will lead to new diabetes drugs as well as weight loss pills.
But it seems finding time to relax could also do us the power of good.
Researcher Dr Alon Chen set out to find out why so many people reach for the biscuit tin when under pressure at home or at work.
In studies on mice, he pinpointed a gene that pumps out a protein called Ucn3 at times of stress.

Diet versions of citrus drinks such as Sprite may reduce risk of kidney stones

Fizzy citrus diet drinks may help stop people developing painful kidney stones, research suggests.
An ingredient in some soft drinks could be a preventive measure for those at risk of the disorder, scientists say.
The drinks - 7Up, Sunkist, Sprite, Fresca and Canada Dry ginger ale - contain high amounts of a compound called citrate.
This is known to inhibit the formation of calcium oxalate stones, the most common form of kidney stone.
Researcher Dr Brian Eisner, of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, said that patients are advised to drink two to three litres of fluids a day to reduce the problem.
'If drinking these helps reach that goal, that may be a good thing,' he told the Journal of Urology, adding that he is not advocating that those prone to stones 'run out and get diet soda'.
Kidney stones develop when urine contains more crystal-forming substances - such as calcium, uric acid and oxalate - than can be diluted by the available fluid.
Potassium citrate supplements are a common treatment for preventing calcium oxalate stones, as well as another type of stone called uric acid stones, in people who are prone to them.
In a study ten years ago, one of Dr Eisner's fellow researchers found that a homemade lemonade concoction was effective at raising stone-formers' urine citrate levels.
Exactly how effective 'lemonade therapy' is at preventing stones remains unclear, said Dr Eisner.
The current study investigated whether any commercially available drinks had a similar citrate content as the homemade lemonade. 
Overall, the study found, citrus-based diet sodas - including 7Up, Sunkist Orange, Sprite, Fresca and Canada Dry ginger ale - had a higher citrate levels than the homemade lemonade.  But dark colas had little or no citrate.
Dr Eisner is not advocating that those prone to stones 'run out and get diet soda'.
However, he pointed out that patients are routinely advised to drink two to three litres of water or other fluids each day in a bid to reduce the problem.
'If drinking these sodas helps people reach that goal, then that may be a good thing,' he said.
In a study ten years ago, one of Eisner's fellow researchers found that a homemade lemonade concoction was effective at raising the citrate level in the urine of those susceptible to forming stones.
Exactly how effective 'lemonade therapy' is at preventing stones remains unclear, but some doctors do recommend it to patients as a do-it-yourself treatment, said Dr Eisner.

Can the world's most extreme diet really help you live to 120? Wheat, sugar, dairy, meat are ALL banned - so is tap water

Elvira and Claus Bonrich are the very model of a successful young couple.
With their impressive careers - Claus is a software programmer and Elvira works in an upmarket health food shop - their immaculate home in Wimbledon, South London, and their wardrobe of designer clothes, they couldn’t appear more conventional.
But they have a quite extraordinary ambition. Elvira, 28, and Claus, 33, want to live longer than anyone in the world has ever done before.

Elvira and Claus Bonrich believe they can live longer than anyone in the world by monitoring every single mouthful they take

And they believe they can achieve this - simply by monitoring every single mouthful they take.
The Bonrichs are devotees of a diet and health regime which has taken America by storm and is now attracting much interest here. The eating programme is known as Calorie Restriction.
Its diet of steamed vegetables, fish, nuts and more nuts may appear, well, nuts, to cynics. But followers are convinced that it’s the passport to longevity.
By living on near starvation rations, they believe they have found the secret to living into their hundreds.

Crash diets 'work best': Rapid weight loss can lead to shedding more in the long run

With the holiday season just around the corner, here's news which will be welcomed by those who've been meaning to lose weight but haven't got around to it.
Crash dieting is an effective way to slim, scientists have found. Despite health warnings from nutritionists, research showed that dieters who shed the most weight in their first month also lost more in the long run.
And they were just as likely to maintain their new shape as dieters who lost less.
The message, says the study, is that the first few weeks of a diet are critical and may spur dieters on.
University of Florida researchers followed more than 250 obese women who were asked to cut their calorie intake and increase their exercise for 18 months. Those who lost more than 1.5lb a week during the first month lost more than two stone within six months on average.
But those who initially lost less than half a pound a week ended up losing just 11lb overall. The 1.5lb a week figure is well within the safe limits recommended by most dieticians.
Although women in both groups did put some weight back on, those in the speedy group fared no worse than the others.
Writing in the International Journal of Behavioural Medicine, the researchers said: 'Because weight regain reverses the health benefits achieved with weight loss, considerable efforts have been placed on identifying behavioural factors that may be associated with long-term success. Studies have shown that rate of initial weight loss, even within the first few weeks of treatment, may serve as an important predictor of long-term success.

Crash diets 'work best': Rapid weight loss can lead to shedding more in the long run

With the holiday season just around the corner, here's news which will be welcomed by those who've been meaning to lose weight but haven't got around to it.
Crash dieting is an effective way to slim, scientists have found. Despite health warnings from nutritionists, research showed that dieters who shed the most weight in their first month also lost more in the long run.
And they were just as likely to maintain their new shape as dieters who lost less.
The message, says the study, is that the first few weeks of a diet are critical and may spur dieters on.
University of Florida researchers followed more than 250 obese women who were asked to cut their calorie intake and increase their exercise for 18 months. Those who lost more than 1.5lb a week during the first month lost more than two stone within six months on average.
But those who initially lost less than half a pound a week ended up losing just 11lb overall. The 1.5lb a week figure is well within the safe limits recommended by most dieticians.
Although women in both groups did put some weight back on, those in the speedy group fared no worse than the others.
Writing in the International Journal of Behavioural Medicine, the researchers said: 'Because weight regain reverses the health benefits achieved with weight loss, considerable efforts have been placed on identifying behavioural factors that may be associated with long-term success. Studies have shown that rate of initial weight loss, even within the first few weeks of treatment, may serve as an important predictor of long-term success.

The brain diet: Eating the right foods can improve your memory, lift your mood and help you concentrate for longer

Junk food is as addictive as heroin, it was reported recently.
It seems fatty and sugary snacks trigger the same pleasure centres in the brain as drugs - which could explain why many people just can't stop themselves bingeing on the stuff. It could also lie behind the obesity epidemic.
But it's not just unhealthy food that has a significant effect on health and behaviour.

Omega-3 oils (found mainly in oily fish, but also in walnuts, pumpkin and flax seeds) are good 'brain food'

Your brain weighs just 3lbs or so - a fraction of overall body weight - but it gobbles up about 20 per cent of your daily calorie intake. A brain-healthy diet is essential for keeping your memory and intellect sharp and your mood buoyant.
Here, we look at the latest thinking on nutrition and the brain - and the foods that help as well as those that hinder...

BOOST CONCENTRATION

Good powers of concentration depend on keeping the messages flowing freely between brain cells

Good powers of concentration depend on keeping the messages flowing freely between brain cells.
These cells need oxygen to fire up and send a message, and they get it from blood sugar.
Simply ensuring an adequate and steady calorie intake throughout the day is therefore the first step to keeping focused and alert. It is not enough, however, for the signals to be generated - they also have to be sent from one cell to another.
This is done by nerve fibres. Just like electric wires, these fibres have to be insulated so the messages flow. In order to build these sheaths, the brain needs a fatty substance called myelin.
Omega-3 oils (found mainly in oily fish, but also in walnuts, pumpkin and flax seeds) help build and maintain myelin. This may be why fish oil supplements seem to boost children's mental performance, although studies showing this are controversial.

TOP TIP: Eating regularly - three meals a day - helps you to concentrate. Snack on walnuts and seeds.

LIFT YOUR MOOD

Our feelings, like all mental activities, involve a frenetic exchange of electrical messages between the brain cells.
The information is carried between the cells by chemicals called neurotransmitters - and these play a key role in your mood.
One of the key neurotransmitters is dopamine, the ' feel - good' messenger. Rising levels of dopamine give you enthusiasm, drive and pleasure. Falling levels are liked to a sense of emptiness, sadness, irritation and boredom.
Sugary and fatty foods cause a surge of dopamine. However, a quick dopamine high is invariably followed by an equally sharp drop, so to keep buoyant all day you are better off eating slow release, protein-rich foods.
Another way of ensuring a steady production of dopamine - and a continued good mood - is to supply your brain with precursors. These are the molecules which it uses to manufacture dopamine.
One important precursor called phenylalanine is found in beets, soybeans (available as edamame beans), almonds, eggs, meat and grains.
But if you really need a quick mood-boost, chocolate is especially effective at pumping up dopamine. That's because it contains anandamide - a fat molecule that resembles the active substance found in marijuana.
Another neurotransmitter, called serotonin, helps you feel serene and content, combating anxiety. A carbohydrate snack will raise your serotonin level quickly, but it will also make you sleepy, so again, it is better to keep the level steady.
To manufacture serotonin the brain needs tryptophan, a substance found mainly in eggs and meat - the good news is that a bacon and egg breakfast will supply your body with serotonin building blocks to last the day.
Alcohol also creates a sense of well-being in small doses - it does this partly by boosting dopamine.
In large doses, however, it leads to a hangover, which is characterised by low mood. And long-term overuse actually destroys brain cells, especially those concerned with memory.
TOP TIP: Try bacon and eggs for breakfast for a good mood throughout the day. Almonds and edamame beans are also good.

STAY ALERT

Caffeinated coffee is a classic remedy for sleepiness, but there's an art to using it properly

Caffeinated coffee is a classic remedy for sleepiness, but there's an art to using it properly. Its effect is down to the way it binds to certain cell receptors in the brain.
These would normally soak up a substance that turns off electrical activity, making you drowsy. Caffeine effectively blocks this substance, so encouraging your brain cells to be more active, giving you a burst of energy.
Too much caffeine, however, produces nerviness because the pituitary gland at the base of the brain interprets this spurt of activity as warning of an emergency.
It then instructs the body to produce the 'fight or flight' hormone adrenalin. So while you'll become more alert initially, and your brain may work better and faster, you may also feel anxious - cancelling out your ability to think clearly. Stick to a single espresso.
Carbohydrates can also provide a energy hit because they create a surge of glucose.
But this in turn causes the body to release the hormone insulin - which makes you feel drowsy.
TOP TIP: A single espresso will boost your alertness, but a double will just make you anxious and muddle your thinking.
MEMORY
Our ability to remember things depends on getting brain cells to make new connections.
They do this best when they are highly excited - that is why we tend to remember events which happen when we are feeling emotionally or intellectually stimulated.
There is one key messenger in the brain which keeps brain cells excited - acetylcholine.

Vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower also seem to help memory

In fact, drugs which mimic the effect of this chemical have been found to boost memory in people with Alzheimer's.
This key chemical is made from choline, which is found in eggs, liver and soybeans.
Vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower also seem to help memory. Researchers found people who eat these do better than peers on memory tests.
TOP TIP: Eggs could make a real difference to your memory. Eat them regularly.
CONTROL CRAVINGS
When you are anxious, your body produces stress hormones called glucocorticoids. These trigger the brain to seek ways to relieve the misery. And that's where sugary, fatty foods come in.
Studies of rats with high levels of stress hormones found they developed compulsive behaviours, including guzzling sugary drinks and eating lard.
The short-term effect was to lower their stress hormones and help them relax. However, the effect of comfort eating was to make them fat.

Over a long period, repeated exposure to sugar alters the way the brain responds - the body need more to get pleasure, so people get addicted in the same way they get addicted to drugs.
It's boring but true: the only way to prevent cravings is to avoid the substances that create them. If you are ambushed by a craving, you can either feed it or resist. Or try other dopamine-boosting activities, such as reading.
TOP TIP: Try to limit your habit. Or try other sorts of dopamine-boosting activities such as exercise or socialising.

iPhone 5: iPod touch-slim, MBA-styled, 3.7-inch and NFC iPhone

More iPhone 5 whispers this weekend, as speculation about the fifth-generation smartphone – already tipped to be an all-encompassing World Phone with perhaps even support for T-Mobile USA 3G – prompts a new mockup with a distinctly iPod touch flavor to it. Contrary to recent suggestions that the iPhone 5 would be similar in specs and design to the iPhone 4, This is my next is hearing that it will be “more like the iPod touch than the iPhone 4″ with a thinner chassis more akin to the MacBook Air in profile.

They put together the mockup on the left – with what they admit is an over-exaggerated taper – and thenCorey Daniels put together a more MBA-styled alternative, shown on the right. The home button has been enlarged, and now doubles as a gesture area, while the screen has grown to an expected 3.7-inches – with a 312 ppi pixel density, allowing Apple to continue using its Retina Display branding – with minimal bezel.

That could be the result of new bonded glass technology, minimizing the amount of extraneous space required, and perhaps even allowing Apple to put the earpiece and sensors behind the display itself. It’s not the only sensor shift tipped: there’s what’s marked in leaked (and unshown) diagrams as a “swipe area” on the bottom and/or top of the iPhone 5, which could well be an NFC sensor. Apple is believed to be working hard on NFC wireless payment technologies, though there has been argument over whether the system would show up in the fifth-gen phone.

World Phone support from a GSM/CDMA chip – like the Qualcomm Gobi MDM6600 inside the Verizon iPhone 4, which is currently locked to CDMA mode – also seems a lock-in, especially as it would open up the Chinese market too. In short, rather than a spec-bump, the iPhone 5 could well turn out to be pretty revolutionary.

The Big Day: Apple Unveils the iPhone 5

Today, Apple will reveal the fifth generation iPhone 5, marking a 15-month wait for the elusive iPhone 5. Follow this article throughout the day for real-time updates on the Apple iPhone 5 media event. October 4th may come to represent one of the most cathartic Apple product announcements ever — the launch of the fifth generation iPhone. Newly-appointed Apple CEO Tim Cook will make his first major on-stage PR performance today at 10:00 am PST on Apple’s own corporate campus in Cupertino, CA to a packed house of journalists in what promises to be a monumentous fifth chapter in the ever-escalating success story of the iPhone. Dubbed the “iPhone 5″ by tech media and enthusiasts alike, this iPhone iteration brings with it a level of anticipation and mystery that no other iPhone model — or smartphone, for that matter — has enjoyed since the launch of the smartphone market segment in mobile computing and telephony. The landmark sales success of the iPhone 4 has launched the iPhone brand to a point where tech analysts believe that 41% of all mobile phone users — and 35% of the population overall — will eventually come to purchase an iPhone 5. But while many people are certain that they’ll purchase an iPhone 5, little is confirmed about what to expect from its features, its official name, and even if there will be two new iPhones instead of one. The Summer has been filled with a series of conflicting reports that claim the next iPhone will either sport a larger touch screen, new look and form factor, or keep the current screen size and chassis of the iPhone 4. Because of the inconclusiveness of the rumors, as well as Apple’s trademark silence about its new iPhone developments, no one in the media knows for sure what to expect from the iPhone 5. For this reason there is even speculation that the next iPhone could be called “iPhone 4S” if it turns out to be a refresh of the current iPhone 4, or even “iPhone 4G” if the next iPhone becomes the first to feature 4G LTE technology. There are even rumors that Apple could reveal two new iPhones for the first time ever, boasting a totally redesigned, “pro” model iPhone 5, together with a lesser-equipped iPhone 4S. What is certain about the next iPhone is that it will become Apple’s flagship mobile device for launching its audacious, new operating system, iOS 5, as well as iCloud — a cloud computing platform that will allow Apple users to easily share and access their data, photos, files, music, videos, and more on their iPhone, iPad, or Mac computer, thus creating an “Apple ecosystem” that could make owning a suite of Apple products irresistable for tech enthusiasts. iOS 5 also proves to deliver a groundbreaking new user interface, with credible rumors that its new Assistant voice-activated technology will allow users to control virtually every facet of their iPhone with intuitive, user-friendly voice commands (that actually work, unlike much of the voice-activated technology on the market today). While much is known about the iPhone 5′s expected software features — iOS 5′s beta version was launched at Apple’s Worldwide Developer’s Conference (WWDC) in June of this year — most of the biggest question marks remain about its hardware features. We know that Apple will equip the iPhone 5 with its new A5 chip — currently used in the iPad 2 — and very well may include an 8-megapixel camera; advanced, capacitive home button; and increased RAM and/or storage. Regardless of what the next iPhone turns out to be — a refreshed iPhone 4 with advanced features or a revolutionary new iPhone design — the buzz surrounding Apple’s fifth generation iPhone promises to make it the most successful smartphone design ever. 

41% of Mobile Users Express iPhone 5 Purchase Intent – InMobi Study

  

InMobi, which claims to be the world’s largest independent mobile ad network, has released the combined results of its monthly InMobi Mobile Insights network ad data research and a custom iPhone-focused study, “iPhone 5 and the Mobile Market.” InMobi says its announcement can be considered a forecast of the scope and effect of the confirmed October 4th Apple iPhone announcement. InMobi anticipates the North American mobile ad market to experience a significant increase in mobile media consumption based on its iPhone 5 consumer data findings, deducing that the fifth-generation iPhone is shaping up to be most successful smartphone product launch to date. The recent InMobi consumer smartphone survey found that 41% of current mobile users in the U.S., Mexico, and Canada plan to buy an iPhone 5, which if it plays out in reality would make the fifth-gen handset Apple’s best-seller yet. The study also indicates that over 50% of users affirming intent to buy will make their move within six months of the iPhone 5 launch, which would increase Apple’s mobile platform market share from 27% in June 2011 (comScore Inc., August 2011) to 41% in the first half of 2012, However, there’s a caveat. InMobi says that if Apple were to announce an iPhone next Tuesday that only amounts to an update of the current iPhone 4, a la the 3GS update of the existing iPhone that Apple released in 2009, interest in the new Apple smartphone will be significantly lower, with fewer than 15% of consumers saying they would be likely to pick up the new handset. In terms of what consumers are expecting in the new iPhone, the InMobi study finds that the most hoped for improvements and enhancements would be improved battery life; increased processor power; higher-quality screen resolution; and stronger phone service, Customer Retention And New Users As for the iPhone 5′s impact on Apple’s smartphone competition, InMobi’s study revealed that over half of current BlackBerry users (52%) are planning to switch to the iPhone 5, a higher proportion than even current iPhone users 51% of whom say they’ll be trading up. Greater than one in four (27%) of Android owners have iPhone 5 fever as well. The worst news is for already beleaguered Research in Motion, with the study finding that even if Apple only announced an iPhone 4S, 28 percent of current BlackBerry smartphone would still switch to Apple, more than double the percentage of current iPhone and Android owners who would buy in that hypothetical instance. Source: InMobi InMobi’s North America Market Overview, which shows nearly 24 billion mobile ad impressions on the InMobi network over the past quarter, also finds Apple mobile ad impressions are on the rise in iPod Touch devices and that as a manufacturer, Apple has the majority of the market share, at 29%. Data from the report also indicate a 33% growth in mobile ad impressions over the past three months, and a 39% growth in smart phone impressions in the North America mobile market. An infographic outlining the full findings of InMobi’s most recent research is available at: Commenting on InMobi’s latest findings, InMobi’s VP Global Research & Marketing James Lamberti, said: “The combination of Apple’s increasing market share in mobile advertising and general consumer interest in their latest technology is another boon for the mobile advertising industry. Apple is currently the clear leader in terms of compelling user experience and customer loyalty, and we feel that their quality and pace of innovation when it comes to mobile devices will continue to improve the content and advertising experience for consumers for iPhone5 and beyond.”

This Is Serious: Apple To Offer Refund For New iPad In Australia Due To “Misleading” 4G Claims

The news of Apple’s troubles down under over the New iPad and its 4G claims in an advert has grown even more serious, with the company offering a wide-ranging refund to all Australian customers. Could this snafu turn into a widespread disaster for Cupertino?

Today it has been widely reported that Apple will be offering full refunds to all Australian buyers of the new iPad 3. This wide-ranging recall comes as a result of a rapidly escalating disaster for Apple in Australia, after a consumer watchdog group there took legal steps to force Cupertino to change the way it is marketing its new tablet — namely, its popular 4G LTE connectivity.

The problem is that Australia is not yet equipped with a wide-ranging 4G network, and so the watchdog group is claiming that Apple’s iPad 3 adverts are misleading and constitute false advertising. According to the Mail, “The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission has taken legal action to ensure Apple makes consumers aware its third-generation iPad cannot connect to a 4G mobile data network in Australia due to technical incompatibility. Apple promoted its third-generation tablet as the iPad with Wifi+4G, but Australia has only one 4G network, operated by Telstra Corp, which operates on a different frequency to the 4G on Apple’s new iPad.”

In order to stem the tide of rising criticism in Australia, Apple will move to offer anyone refunds who feel as though they were misled by advertisements that highlighted the tablet’s 4G LTE capabilities.

There is also concern that this situation could spread to other countries where 4G networks are still not fully implemented, such as in the UK. Given the significant 4G LTE investments made by Apple’s mobile carrier partners in the U.S., however, it is not believed that any sort of lawsuit or refund would extend to American iPad 3 customers.

Iphone 5 Release Date And Features

Will the Iphone 5 ever be released?

The release date of the iphone 5 has been just an on going rumor for months now. Among the new features every new Iphone brings, the release date is just as hot a topic. People want 

to know exactly when it’s available so they can have it first, or have it at all. Every new Iphone release has always been a hectic yet very successful one for Apple, selling faster than they can deliver. People always want what they can’t have which just makes these launches that much more troublesome.  Fear not, when the Iphone 5 release date is leaked you can be certain that we will have it for you first.

The Iphone 5 was expected to be released with the new iOS 5 but complications happened which made the release of the iphone 5 with iOS 5 impossible in Apple’s eyes. So here we have the Iphone 4S, which to many was a major disappointment. Most people were expecting more from one of the world’s biggest and most technologically influential companies to date. The day the Iphone 4s was announced, Apple’s stock plummeted and for good reason. While the Iphone 4s does offer performance upgrades and added features, it was not enough according to the majority of Iphone enthusiasts. While it isn’t the first time Apple released an ‘S’ version in between official versions, it was the fact that it was so out of the blue and unexpected it has shocked people and Apple’s stock.

The iPhone 5 release date is still just rumors circulating with no concrete information. However the fact that Apple seems to prefer to have their major launches in late spring to early summer is probably a good place to speculate as the next release date for Iphone 5. As of right now most tech gurus are saying early summer 2012, but now with the recent release of the Iphone 4s the iphone 5 release date could be delayed further. Customers that buy the iPhone 4s could be extremely angry if Apple were to release the Iphone 5 less than a year later. Unfortunately in today’s technology world 1 year is a very long time, so get used to it.

Not only are these release dates a matter of releasing a bug free product, but there is also a marketing aspect behind them. Apple wants to release at the absolute best time to maximize profits after building months and even years worth of hype. Delaying too long could allow for competition to come in and snag a good percentage of customers that grow tireless of waiting. Releasing too soon could result in a bug filled product that wasn’t tested enough causing major customer support issues and potentially damaging the company’s reputation.

As you can see the iPhone 5 release date is a very touchy subject for both customers, developers and manufacturers with many variables coming into play. Who will know the official release date of the Iphone 5 first? Apple of course! Who will be the next to know?

iPhone 5 Features Update:

Two new rumors have surfaced that are claiming apple is considering adding credit card processing from your iPhone. How this will work exactly is still unknown but the concept is there. The other rumored feature is a better camera that is capable of panorama picture taking and full 1080p video recording.

According to a few sources, both Sony and Hitachi have shipped protype 4-inch screen sized iPhone 5′s to Apple for testing. If this is true it could mean an iPhone 5 release date as early as March 2012 but more than likely later rather than sooner. One thing to keep in mind though is that Steve Jobbs delayed the iPhone 5 because he felt it wasn’t ready, however his succesors seem to feel otherwise moving forward with the new phone. So there could be new standards and protocols Apple is taking now that could affect things like release date patterns we’re used to.

Primary health care   

This article is about an approach to providing universal health care. For the sector of the health care system, see Primary care.  

Public ambulatory care facility in Maracay, Venezuela, providing ambulatory care sensitive conditions for adequate primary health care.

Primary health care, often abbreviated as "PHC", has been defined as "essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination".^[1] In other words, PHC is an approach to health beyond the traditional health care system that focuses on health equity-producing social policy.^[2][3]
This ideal model of health care was adopted in the declaration of the International Conference on Primary Health Care held in Alma Ata in 1978 (known as the "Alma Ata Declaration"), and became a core concept of the World Health Organization's goal of Health for all.^[4] The Alma-Ata Conference mobilized a "Primary Health Care movement" of professionals and institutions, governments and civil society organizations, researchers and grassroots organizations that undertook to tackle the "politically, socially and economically unacceptable" health inequalities in all countries.

History of medicine

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All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, death, and disease. Throughout history, illness has been attributed to witchcraft, demons, astral influence, or the will of the gods. These ideas still retain some power, with faith healing and shrines still used in some places, although the rise of scientific medicine over the past millennium has altered or replaced mysticism in most cases.
The ancient Egyptians had a system of medicine that was very advanced for its time and influenced later medical traditions. The Egyptians and Babylonians both introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, and medical examination. The Hippocratic Oath, still taken by doctors today, was written in Greece in the 5th century BCE. In the medieval era, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in Rogerius's The Practice of Surgery. During the Renaissance, understanding of anatomy improved, and the invention of the microscope would later lead to the germ theory of disease. These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and lab technology (such as the x-ray) led to modern medicine.

Health care provider

A health care provider is an individual or an institution that provides preventive, curative, promotional or rehabilitative health care services in a systematic way to individuals, families or communities.
An individual health care provider (also known as a health worker) may be a health care professional within medicine, nursing, or a field of allied health. Health care providers may also be a public/community health professional. Institutions (also known as health facilities) include hospitals, clinics, primary care centres, and other service delivery points. The practice of health professionals and operation of health care institutions is typically regulated by national or state/provincial authorities through appropriate regulatory bodies for purposes of quality assurance.^[1] Together, they form part of an overall health care system.

Health system

A health system, also sometimes referred to as health care system or healthcare system is the organization of people, institutions, and resources to deliver health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.
There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. In some countries, health system planning is distributed among market participants. In others, there is a concerted effort among governments, trade unions, charities, religious, or other co-ordinated bodies to deliver planned health care services targeted to the populations they serve. However, health care planning has been described as often evolutionary rather than revolutionary.^[1][2]